XI Международная студенческая научная конференция Студенческий научный форум - 2019

Spinoza-the most noble and attractive of the great philosophers. Some intellectually superior to him, morally he is above all. The natural consequence of this was that throughout his life and for a century after his death he was considered a man of terrifying immorality. He was born into a Jewish family, but the Jews excommunicated him. Equally hated him and the Christians. Although his whole philosophy was dominated by the idea of God, the clergy accused him of atheism.

The main position of his metaphysics is that there is only one substance – God or nature, the attributes of which are thinking and stretching. Substance and its attributes are infinite and exist with necessity, and all the final things are only the modes or occurrences of the substance – its random, transient States, disappearing without a trace in the substance.

I. The Life Of Benedict Spinoza.

Benedict Spinoza (Baruch d'espinosa) was born in Amsterdam in 1632 in a wealthy family of Spanish Jews (forced to hide from the persecution of the Inquisition and accept Christianity, secretly maintaining loyalty to his former faith). The family moved from Portugal to the Netherlands to hide (Jews and Moors who had to renounce their faith were called "marran"in Spain). At the school of the Jewish community in Amsterdam Spinoza learned Hebrew, studied the Bible and the Talmud. Spinoza spoke Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, some French and Italian, and was fluent in literary Hebrew.

Between 1652 and 1656 he attended the school of Francis van den Enden (a Catholic scholar who later became an independent thinker) and studied Latin and science. Knowledge of Latin has opened up the world of the classics (and among them Cicero and Seneca), Renaissance and modern philosophers, especially Descartes, bacon and Hobbes.

As Spinoza's thinking developed, his rejection of the principles of the Jewish religion became increasingly clear. Later clashes with theologians and scholars of the community began. Disagreements became so acute also because the outstanding intellectual abilities of Spinoza quickly drew to itself General attention, and eminent members of the Jewish community wished to see him the Rabbi. However, Spinoza showed such intransigence, especially after the death of his father in 1654, that some fanatic even tried to kill the scientist, and only thanks to the agility and speed of reaction, the philosopher managed to escape (keeping the cloak cut with dagger blows).

In 1656, Spinoza was excommunicated from the synagogue, cursed and expelled from the community, Jewish friends and relatives left it. The sister disputed the right to the father's inheritance. In the trial, he won the case, but did not accept the inheritance, because brought a lawsuit only for the protection of the right as such, and not because of the property.

After his expulsion from the community, Spinoza found shelter in a small village near Amsterdam, where he composed "Apology" in defense of his own position. Later he moved to Rijnsburg close to Leiden, from there to Voorburg, in the vicinity of the Hague, where he lived in a rooming house, and from 1670 he settled in the Hague in the house of the painter van der Speke.

He learned how to Polish optical glasses, and the income from this work covered most of his needs. Because Spinoza led a very modest way of life (the only luxury he allowed himself - books), he did not cost much. Rich and influential admirers and friends asked him for help, but he didn't take anything or, as in the case of rent, presented by S. de Vries, agreed to take, but drastically reduce its value: for a modest life quite small.

Excommunication from the synagogue, which had legal and social consequences, isolated him from the Jews, but did not separate him from the Christians (to whose faith, however, Spinoza did not join). It was adopted among Christians who are prone to openness and religious tolerance. Spinoza became acquainted with such influential persons as the brothers de Witt (they headed the democratic party), Huygens, who patronized him, other educated and famous people.

In 1673, the philosopher was offered the University chair in Heidelberg, but he politely but firmly refused, fearing that the official post of University Professor would limit his freedom as a thinker.

He died of tuberculosis in 1677 at the age of 44.

II. Compositions

The first work of Spinoza - "a Brief treatise on God, man and his happiness", written, most likely, in 1660 (it remained unpublished until the last century). By 1661(1662) refers "Treatise on the improvement of the mind." The masterpiece that became the result of all life - "Ethics", started around 1661 - was published after the death of Spinoza in 1677 together with the "Treatise on the improvement of the mind", "Political treatise" and "Correspondence".

The only work published during his lifetime Spinoza under his own name, was "the foundations of Descartes's philosophy, proved geometrically" with "Metaphysical thought" (1663.)

"Theological and political treatise"and" Political treatise". The former is a curious combination of Bible criticism and political theory; the latter is related only to political theory. In a critique of the Bible, Spinoza partly foreshadows modern views, in particular by defining later dates of various books of the old Testament compared to the terms specified by the legend.
III. Spinoza's Philosophy

The main position of his metaphysics is that there is only one substance – God or nature, the attributes of which are thinking and stretching. Substance and its attributes are infinite and exist with necessity, and all the final things are only the modes or occurrences of the substance – its random, transient States, disappearing without a trace in the substance.

Spinoza begins the presentation of his philosophy with the definition of substance as causa sui (lat.)- reasons themselves the most. "By reason of myself, I understand that the essence of which is existence, in other words, that by its nature cannot be thought otherwise than the existing" (Spinoza Etoka//Izbr. prod. In 2 vols. vol.1. M., 1957. P. 361).This definition of cause destroys the usual notion of cause as something other than an action. Causa sui is such an acting cause, which, acting, does not produce something else, but only itself and that is why it can not be thought of as non-existent. This is the substance. It exists solely because of itself and can only be understood from itself, not from other things. Following Descartes, Spinoza speaks only about two attributes of the substance – length and thinking.

The finite, transient States of the infinite, eternal substance Spinoza calls modus: "under modus I understand the state of the substance, i.e. what exists in the other and is comprehended through this other" (Ibid.). These single modifications exist, therefore, not by themselves, but only thanks to the substance. Therefore, they cannot be known by themselves, but only through the universal concept of substance and its special attributes, thinking and extent.

Spinoza's political theory comes mainly from Hobbes, despite the huge difference in the character of these people. He believes that in the natural state there is no right and wrong, because the wrong is disobeying the law. He believes that the sovereign cannot do wrong, and agrees with Hobbes that the Church should be completely subordinate to the state. He is against any rebellion, even against a bad government, and gives examples of disasters in England to prove the harm that comes from violent resistance to the authorities. But he disagrees with Hobbes ' idea that monarchy is the most natural form of government. He also disagreed that subjects should sacrifice all their rights in favour of the ruler. In particular, he considers freedom of opinion to be important.

IV. Religion in Spinoza's philosophy

In the history of philosophy, Spinoza for the first time clearly showed that religion is in a completely different plane of knowledge than philosophy, revealed exclusively at the level of the second and third kinds of knowledge (i.e. rational and reasonable). In contrast, religion is at the level of the first stage of knowledge, where imagination prevails. The prophets, the authors of the biblical Maxim, do not boast intelligence, their texts are full of fantasy and imagination.

In addition, religion seeks obedience, while philosophy (and only it) aims at the attainment of truth. It is common knowledge that tyrannical regimes have too often used religion to achieve their goals.

Spinoza believes that in reality the followers of different religions live approximately the same way. The philosopher writes: "I have Often observed with amazement how people who are proud to profess Christianity, preaching love, peace, joy, chastity and honesty towards others, with the greatest hostility fight each other, experiencing growing every day irreconcilable hatred to such an extent that it would be easier to recognize the faith of any of them the custom to use violence than the Christian commandments. In fact, the situation is such that it is enough to observe the behavior and customs of people, to know what Church each of them attends or what opinion shares to know the faith of anyone, i.e. to find out whether he is a Christian, a Turk, a Jew or a pagan. In the rest all live equally".

Therefore, the purpose of religion is to teach people to worship, obey and serve God. The content of faith (whether old or New Testament) boils down to a few basic provisions that Spinoza formulates in seven paragraphs:

1. God is a highly just and merciful being, a model of real life. One who does not know about Him or believe in his existence can neither obey nor acknowledge his righteous judgment.

2. God is one. No one can doubt that agreement with this dogma is absolutely necessary for complete piety, admiration and love of God, because piety, admiration and love are generated by his exceptional superiority over all others;

3. God is omnipresent, that is, he knows everything. To think that there is something to hide from Him or not to admit that he sees everything would mean to doubt the justice of his justice, according to which he manages everything, or simply not to recognize him.

4. God has the Supreme right and authority over all and does not act by any law, but according to his absolute will and by his exceptional grace. All are obliged absolutely to obey, He is - anyone.

5. Worship and obedience to God consist in justice and humanity, i.e. in love with one's neighbor.

6. All who obey God in the proper way of life will be saved, while others who live by instinct will perish. If it were not for this deep and lasting conviction, it would not be clear why people should prefer obedience to God to their pleasures.

7. God forgives sins to those who repent. Indeed, all people fall into sin, and if there was no certainty of forgiveness, all would lose hope of salvation, and then there would be no reason to consider God merciful.

V. The state as a guarantee of freedom

Spinoza was a Dutch by origin, and according to the norms of the political right.

"I do not pretend," Spinoza said, " to have found a better philosophy, but I know that I have known the true one." Not having a strong position in society, he sought guarantees of political security provided by the rule of law, the main meaning of which - the preservation of human life.

The legal state of Spinoza is based on the postulates very close to the theory of "natural law" of Hobbes, in the sense that every individual is destined by nature to exist and act in a certain way. "By the law of nature I understand the natural rules inherent in every being. For example, fish are determined by nature to swim, the larger of them - devouring the smaller; hence, as higher law is natural law that requires the fish to constantly dwell in the water and larger individuals eat the rest."

Similarly, people prone to passions are "natural enemies". However, because of the strong desire to live and to get away from the endless conflict, people make the social contract (conscious of the need for government laws, regulations, "moderate and restrain the passions and unruly impulses"), because without each other they will not be able to live without difficulties, either to improve the spiritual world.

However, the state to which the rights to establish a social contract are transferred cannot be an absolutist state, as Hobbes says. Some human rights are inalienable, for by renouncing them one ceases to be a human being. The goal of the state is not despotism, but freedom.

Conclusion

Spinoza was a well-educated scientist, his sources of inspiration are very diverse: late antique philosophy, medieval Jewish scholasticism of Maimonides and Avicebron, scholasticism of the XVI-XVII centuries, philosophy of the Renaissance (G. Bruno and Leon Jew), of his contemporaries had the greatest influence Descartes and Hobbes. The new synthesis became the most important stage of Western philosophy.

The ancient Greeks in the coincidence of doctrine and life saw proof of the authenticity of the spiritual message. Spinoza's metaphysics is perfectly in tune with his personal life.

As the highest goal of the philosophical way he preached the vision of things sub specie aeternitatis (from the point of view of eternity), freeing from the passions of peace and quiet. Peace, calm and impartiality, according to the unanimous statement of contemporaries, are the symbols of Spinoza's existence. Even on the seal for letters, there was the emblem: a rose with the inscription on top: Caute ("Prudence"). The meaning of his philosophy, as we will see, is pure and detached, free from excitement and any passion of comprehension of Life.

References to literature

1. Bertrand Russell: "the History of Western philosophy»

2. History of philosophy: encyclopedia./ Grizanov, A. A. — MN.: Interpresservis; Book House. 2002. - 1376 P -( world of encyclopedias)

3.1996-2000-Russian State Pedagogical University. A. I. Herzen.

4. B. Spinoza. Favourites. In two volumes. Volume I. Moscow.State policy. 1957.

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