X Международная студенческая научная конференция Студенческий научный форум - 2018

Measuring technology has existed since ancient times. For several millennia BC. e. the development of commodity exchange led to weight measurements and the appearance of weights. Primitive measuring technology was required when dividing land plots (measuring areas), setting the daily routine and day, developing a calendar (measuring time), in astronomical observations and ship navigation (measuring angles and distances); in construction (dimensioning). In the ancient era in the process of scientific research, some subtle measurements were made, for example, the angles of refraction of light were measured, the arc of the earth's meridian was determined. Until the fifteenth century, the measuring technique was not separated from mathematics, as the names such as "geometry" (the measurement of the Earth), "trigonometry" (measuring triangles), "the space of three dimensions", etc., were often spoken of. Medieval mathematical treatises often contained a simple enumeration of rules for measuring areas and volumes. The mathematical idealization of the real process of measurement is preserved in a number of important mathematical concepts (from the irrational number to the integral).

Among the great discoveries and inventions of feudal times were glasses and a compass. The place and time of making the first points is not known exactly. For the first time optical glasses appeared in Europe, in Venice, in the XIII century. The need for glasses caused the development of glass business, and in particular, the grinding of glass. In the XIV-XV centuries the glass-grinding business begins to develop rapidly in Holland. Manufacture and application of glasses prepared the invention of a telescope, a microscope and led to the creation of theoretical principles of optics.

The appearance of optics gave not only a huge material of observations, but completely different than before, the means for science, allowed to design new instruments for research.

The use of the phenomenon of magnetism and the creation of a compass allowed a man to significantly expand the scale of travel both overland and by sea. Accurate data on the time and place of application of magnetism and the invention of the compass are unknown. Apparently, magnetism was first discovered in the form of the natural magnetization of some iron ores. The most ancient practical application of magnetism is known in China, where in the annals of the III c. BC. e. there are records of the application of the compass, originally used for land travel. Up to the present day, a copper plate with divisions has been preserved from the compass, the arrow of which was a natural magnetic ironstone, ground in the form of a spoon. With his arched surface, the arrow touched the plate.

The first mention of the compass in Europe dates back to the 12th century. Initially, the compass was a magnetic needle, mounted on a cork that floated in a vessel with water. At the beginning of the XIV century, the compass was improved: a small circle was attached to the arrow, which was called a "card". The circle was divided into 16 divisions, rumba. A rotating arrow with a card was placed in a round box. In the 16th century, the card was divided into 32 rumba, 11.4 °. In Russia, Pomors in the XVI century. called the compass "womb". The main application of the compass was found in marine life, becoming the main instrument for navigation. The compass, the telescope, as well as the growing technique of the marine business, made possible great geographical discoveries in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries.

Perfection of measuring equipment went along with the rapid development of physics, which, based at that time only on experiment, relied entirely on measuring technology. This period includes the improvement of watches, the invention of a microscope, a barometer, a thermometer, the first electrical measuring instruments and other measuring devices used mainly in scientific research. Already at the end of the 16th century, the increase in the accuracy of measurements promoted revolutionary scientific discoveries. For example, the exact astronomical measurements of T. Brahe allowed Kepler to establish that the planets are turning in elliptical orbits. The creation of measuring instruments and the development of their theory involved the largest scientists - G. Galilei, I. Newton, H. Huygens,. Richman et al. Each discovered physical phenomenon was embodied in a suitable instrument, which in turn helped to accurately determine the value of the investigated quantity and establish the laws of interaction between different quantities. So, for example, gradually the concept of temperature was developed and a temperature scale was created.

At the end of the XVIII and the first half of the XVIII century, in connection with the spread of steam engines and the development of machine building, the requirements to the precision of machining of machine parts sharply increased, which led to the rapid development of industrial measuring equipment. At this time, instruments for measuring dimensions are being improved, measuring machines are being introduced, gauges are being introduced, etc. In the 19th century, the fundamentals of the theory of measurement technology and metrology were created; The metric system of measures has become widespread, ensuring the unity of measurements in science and production. Of great importance for measuring technology were the works of K. Gauss, who developed the method of least squares, the theory of random errors, the absolute system of units (CGSE) and laid the foundation of magnetic measurements with Weber. Thanks to the development of heat power engineering, the introduction of electric communication facilities, and then the first electric power installations in the industry, methods and means of measurement were used that were previously used only for scientific research - thermal and electrical devices appeared. At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. In the industrialized countries metrological institutions began to be created. In Russia in 1893 the Main Chamber of Weights and Measures was formed, headed by DI Mendeleev.

The beginning of the twentieth century marks a new stage in the development of measuring technology - electrical, and later electronic means are beginning to be used to measure mechanical, thermal, optical quantities, for chemical analysis, and geological exploration. There are such new industries as radio measurements, spectrometry, etc. There is an instrument-making industry. A qualitative leap in the development of measuring technology occurred after the Second World War, 1939-1945, when the measurement technology acted as a branch of cybernetics, engaged in obtaining and transforming information (measuring), along with such industries as automation and computer technology.

Measurements - the most important stage of the activity of researchers and experimenters in all branches of science and technology. Measuring equipment is the main equipment of scientific research institutes and laboratories, an integral part of the equipment of any technological process, the main useful load of meteorological rockets, artificial Earth satellites and space stations.

Modern measuring equipment is intended not only to affect human senses, such as in the case of signaling or reading of measurement results by an observer, but increasingly for automatic recording and mathematical processing of measurement results and transfer them to a distance or to automatically control any processes . In devices and systems, mechanical, electrical, pneumatic, hydraulic, optical, acoustic signals, amplitude, frequency and phase modulation are used in different sections of the measuring channels; Pulse and digital devices, tracking systems are extremely widely used. The process of measurement by modern measuring devices consists in the purposeful transformation of the measured quantity into a form most convenient for a particular use (perception) by a person or a machine. For example, the meaning of the action of all electrical measuring instruments (ammeters, voltmeters, galvanometers, etc.) is that with their help the measured electrical quantity, the changes of which can not directly be quantified by the sense organs of a person, is transformed into a certain mechanical movement of the pointer (arrows or light beam). Such is the purpose of many mechanical measuring instruments and measuring transducers by means of which a variety of physical quantities are converted into mechanical movement (calipers, micrometers, spring scales, mercury thermometers, spring manometers or barometers, hair hygrometers, etc.).

For the beginning of the 21st century, the recognition of the fact that measuring technology is not so much an "art" of measurement as a special scientific discipline with its own system of concepts and its methods of analysis is characteristic.

Instrument-making science is represented by subjects of branch and academic organizations, disciplines of higher and secondary special educational institutions, numerous scientists, books and periodicals, scientific and technical councils and societies.

International cooperation in instrument making is very important. It allows to provide creation and manufacture of devices and means of automation taking into account traditional opportunities and rational use of scientific and industrial potential of different countries.

International cooperation allows the production of parametric series of unified instruments for monitoring and controlling temperature, pressure, level, flow, quantity of liquids and gases, and other thermal energy values. Co-operation makes it possible to develop and produce control systems for technological processes on the basis of the means of extracting, forming, processing, presenting and using information.

Instrument-making occupies a prominent place in the industry of developed countries. A large number of companies from the USA, the European Union, China, Russia, South Korea and many other countries produce a variety of measuring, analytical, geophysical and other devices, computing and testing machines, data transmission devices, telemechanics and office equipment, and integrated control and regulation systems.

The greatest development in instrument making was the production of mechanical and electrical measuring instruments with high-precision parts. Along with the classic types of engineering technology in the manufacture of parts of instruments used ultrasonic, electron beam, laser, electrochemical, and other advanced types of processing. An increasing place in the instrument making industry is occupied by the production of electronic equipment with automated galvanic, electrophysical, electrochemical, photochemical, diffusion and other processes of processing semiconductor and insulating materials, processes of printed mounting of elements and circuits on modular boards, specialized equipment for the production of electronic functional blocks.

The achievements of computer technology allow instrumentation to significantly expand the arsenal of methods and means of automated management of technological equipment, power plants, industrial enterprises, vehicles, scientific research. Computing devices are also part of measuring, analytical, test, exploration installations and systems as storage facilities and mathematical processing of information for obtaining synthesized results. They are also used as a means of programmatic control of various machines, machines, manipulators and production lines. Instrumentation creates a variety of data processing tools, manual and automatic generation of text and graphic information for direct use in and transmission for further machining.

The development of management automation is associated with the improvement of the collection, transmission, processing and presentation of information by combining analysis of technological and economic parameters for the timely receipt of synthesized production indicators and the activities of the enterprise as a whole. This is the way of development of integrated systems. Creation and distribution of integrated systems are connected with the release of the necessary unified economically feasible complexes of technical means, algorithms, programs and standard design automation solutions applicable in various sectors of the national economy.

It is important to increase the information content of systems while reducing the amount of private information that is provided to a person, which is achieved by expanding the analytical function of measuring and computing devices. Significantly increase the automatic control. The study of technological processes, different modes of operation of equipment and machines makes it possible to use more widely the methods of adapting control systems to obtain the best technical and economic indicators.

Scientific advances in the study of various states of the solid, the dynamics of the motion of liquids and gases, the plasma form of matter, the physico-chemical properties of substances, energy transformations, nonstationary fields, vibrations and radiations make it possible not only to find new principles for the operation of devices, but also to improve accuracy, reliability and economy of the most important products of instrument making and update their nomenclature.

The leading place in instrument-making by the number and variety of devices manufactured is occupied by means of measuring equipment. Methods and instruments of measurement have been created:

electrical and magnetic quantities (voltage, current, power, frequency, phase, resistance, capacitance, magnetic quantities);

heat energy values ​​(temperature, pressure, flow, level);

mechanical values ​​(weight, force, vibration, hardness, deformation, strength).

A large, rapidly developing area is analytical instrumentation, which creates devices for determining the composition and concentration of substances in various media, materials and products. These include electrochemical, ultrasonic, optical, nuclear and other analyzers, complex multiparameter analytical systems. Modern means of physical and chemical analysisuse a variety of phenomena caused by the impact of electric current, electromagnetic waves or penetrating radiation on the environment. Sampling and preparation of samples, transformation, separation, dosing of substances, excitation of their activity, selection of signals and presentation of information are automated.

The development of metallurgy, chemistry, biology, etc. is associated with the need for accurate analysis of ores, metal alloys, petroleum products, impurities in semiconductors, the presence of various elements in food products and living media in a wide range of composition and concentration, requires the use of multicomponent analyzers. Such instruments are X-ray quantometers, polarographs, mass spectrometers, chromatographs that accurately fix the elementary picture of many mineral and organic compounds. Instrument making not only creates and produces such devices, but also provides the possibility of a comprehensive application of analytical tools in systems of automatic control and regulation of technological processes.

The achievements of computer technology allow instrumentation to significantly expand the arsenal of methods and means of automated management of technological equipment, power plants, industrial enterprises, vehicles, scientific research. Computing devices are also part of measuring, analytical, test, exploration installations and systems as storage facilities and mathematical processing of information for obtaining synthesized results. They are also used as a means of programmatic control of various machines, machines, manipulators and production lines.

Significant place in instrument making is occupied by means of transmission of information signals and control impulses over long distances (telemechanics).

Automation of technological processes is impossible without executive mechanisms that convert control impulses into the movement of the regulating bodies of production equipment.

In addition to the basic means of extracting, forming, storing, transmitting, presenting and using information of wide scientific and industrial use, instrumentation produces and produces many different special instruments for geophysics, hydrometeorology, medicine, agriculture, transport, laboratory equipment, specialized complete laboratories, watches and jewelry.

The development of microelectronics, optoelectronics, nonlinear optics, micromechanics enriches instrumentation, promotes the creation of compact, reliable, economical measuring, analytical, exploratory and other instruments, computer controls, telemechanics and automation. Monocrystals with special physical properties, semiconductor, epitaxial and other films, liquid crystals, solid-state integrated circuits, magnetostrictive elements as sensitive receptive, transforming and indicator media qualitatively change the nature of products and technology of instrumentation.

The leading trend in modern instrumentation is the unification of the element-constructive base of devices and their systemic application. Unification is ensured by the normalization of information signals, power supply parameters, metrological indicators, structural forms and sizes, technical requirements and technologies, as well as operating conditions. This significantly simplifies and reduces the cost of designing the system and increases the reliability of their functioning.

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