IX Международная студенческая научная конференция Студенческий научный форум - 2017
РАЗВИТИЕ АВТОМОБИЛЕСТРОЕНИЯ ЗА ГРАНИЦЕЙ
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Some prominent people state that automobiles have improved the quality of life and economy in many countries. For example, with the appearance of cars the rate at which goods and services are transacted significantly increased. Other than that, many jobs, involving road construction, have been created. Social life has also been improved. Thanks to cars, people can visit each other at any time and stay as long as they wish. Public transport has limited hours of work. The economy is said to be improved due to reduced travel time and expenses. The future of car technologies is vague, although there are some advances being developed. The manufacturers work on hybrid and fully autonomous cars at the moment. Hybrid cars use two or more sources to move. Most commonly they are electric vehicles. Autonomous cars are driverless and they already exist in prototype
In this report, I want to tell you about the car body. Body - is part of a car or other vehicle intended for passengers and cargo. The body is attached to the vehicle frame. Car Shape depends on the layout and design of the materials used and the manufacturing technologies of the body. In turn, the emergence of new forms of technology makes the search for new techniques and new materials. The development of the car forms affect the socio-economic factors, and because of the special qualities of the car - its "prestige" fashion. Durability body is connected with its anticorrosion preparation. Corrosion protection is achieved by using a special material of the body, and the body coating materials. As a surface protection using galvanized and paint.
Freight car:
The truck body is made up of the driver's cabin and the loading platform (often just called her and bodywork). At the back of a truck called a constructive part intended for the carriage of goods. the truck can be:
- On-board, including Tailboards one, two or three sides, including equipped awning,
- Tipper, including unloading one, two or three sides,
- Van, including isothermal
- A special body (for transportation of logs, pipes, chemicals, etc.)
Constructive part of a truck designed for the driver and for passengers called the cab. The cabin can be:
in design with respect to the engine:
- Cabin with hood (cab over engine)
- Cabover cab over engine
- Cabover cabin front of the engine,
by the number of rows of seats in the cabin:
- Single-row (or single)
- Two-row (or double)
A car:
The first began systematically and purposefully engaged in artistic design of the car Americans. In 1926, the concern General Motors created the group Art design. And already in 1927, it was released model of La Salle, designed by artists-designers. Its success, as noted by his contemporaries, gave excellent advertising designer profession. The car developed rapidly. The engine took quite uncomfortable for passengers place - between the great wings of the front steered wheels; radiator located in front - to cool his oncoming air flow; drive wheels - the rear, which is beneficial to improve the traction qualities of the car. From the structural point of view, such a layout scheme was quite rational; improving, it survives to this day and was called "a classic layout." The engine, transmission, chassis mounted to the frame. Everything in general was called "chassis". The chassis could move and exist without the body. The body was placed on the chassis as a separate and independent unit for implementation. With a body has obtained the vehicle intended to perform a specific function
the development of forms of car body:
Development of the shape of the body can’t be seen in isolation from the factors that bear on its formation the most that either there is a direct impact - development of construction aggregates, their relative position (layout), structural changes in the market of passenger cars, and so on.
The creator of the world's first motor vehicle Frenchman Cugnot gave his "steam wagon" is quite original appearance, not directly repeating none of the well-known at the time of transport. The design proved to be surprisingly prophetic and contained many elements of the modern car - front-engine and front-wheel drive, power unit, together with transmission mounted on a separate sub frame, steering car type, and so on.
Meanwhile, most of his followers took a different approach - to temporarily disengage from the task of creating an original layout and original appearance of the new means of transport, they have focused their attention on the development of the engine suitable for him, which is installed with minimal alterations to the finished chassis - in his role for a long time made known and well-established in the production of horse-drawn carriages: new content received usual old form. For example, Daimler as a basis for his first car took a hired crew type prolёtki. At the initial stage, however, we have had some distribution tricycles, with a single front wheel and steering the bicycle type, but pretty soon they lost popularity due to a number of congenital deficiencies - especially low resistance to rollover.
By that time, horse-drawn carriages have been through a very long period of development and achieved in relation to its high degree of perfection purpose: got extremely lightweight, but strong enough for normal operation of the body, a soft spring suspension, lightweight, but strong spitsovannye wheels, drum brakes, mud flaps - wings, and so on. Meanwhile, it is known that the degree of perfection as the horse-drawn vehicle significantly hampered the creation on their basis of rational mechanical vehicle.
So, although the logic required to place the engine ahead of the car, under the watchful eye of the driver, in those years, the former is also a mechanic, for it was a place only in the space under the seat - only in the case of double crew or the rear in four-seater, which significantly hampered its operation, maintenance and repair, as well as resulting in a high center of gravity, aggravating the already unimportant resistance (the idea of pulling a carriage separate "mechanical horse" occasionally used, but proved to be futile for the car). It is quite logical turned the drive from the engine to the rear axle, the choice in favor of what facilitated more and the lack of in this case is necessary to solve the problem of combining the functions controlled and driven wheels - all the more so at this stage, even the implementation of the first of these functions is delivered inventors lot of problems
Cars of the first decades of the XX century among collectors call "Edwardian» (Edwardian) in honor of the era of King Edward VII (ruled from 1901 to 1910), which decided to prolong until the end of the First World War (1918).
By the beginning of the XX century it has been gained some experience in the design and manufacture of "horseless carriages". Car form is starting to move away from its prototype - horse-drawn carriage, there are purely road layout techniques.
So, there is a frame - flat supporting frame for fixing the units, whose idea was borrowed from the rail. The appearance of a car coming in the hard structural framing its entire length, in turn, has allowed more freely assemble units: the engine is not started to put under the seat and in the front. This provided better cooling, engine management easier, simplify access to it - that it was a very big advantage, because in those years, gasoline engines require maintenance every few hundred kilometers. Leading thus remained only the rear wheels, which proved to be more beneficial in terms of improving the traction qualities of the car. To connect with the engine positioned ahead of the rear axle applied leading driveline, yet works in conjunction with a chain - it was believed that her presence softens the sharp shocks in the transmission. From the structural point of view, such a layout scheme was quite rational: improving, it survives to this day and is called "classic layout".
From the passenger cabin began to fence off the engine fire wall that not only improve security, but also to ask the separation of the internal space of the vehicle into two sections - the engine and passenger immediately reflected in his appearance. The radiator is placed in front of the engine - for the best counter-blowing airflow. To hide from the views of the public unsightly power unit, it began to lay on top of a metal box with lifting lid on each side - appeared hood shape that sets the shape of the radiator. There are lights for illumination, yet using gas - acetylene. He begins to develop a characteristic "face" of the car, given the configuration of the decorative radiator grille and headlights. Car Form becomes more dynamic, it does not look as creating the impression of incompleteness of the horse-drawn carriage with vypryazhennoy of his horse, and is clearly labeled and artistically decorated the front - in the role of road transport performed very horse harness decorated elements. Appears division into two visual volume ratio control between which allows you to specify the visual perception of the car. So, sports cars elongated volume of the engine compartment clearly dominated trimmed across the board passenger, creating a visual impression of the high-speed characteristics, while vehicles with BENCH closed body proportions were reversed, with an emphasis on such qualities as capacity and solidity. The most harmonious proportioning was typical for vehicles with four-seater open bodies, which have received at the time the most widely used.
The frame consists of two longitudinal beams - spars, interconnected by several cross-beams - traverses, together with established on it the engine, transmission and chassis together form a so-called "chassis". The chassis could move and exist without the employee to accommodate passengers or cargo body - the body was placed on it as a separate and independent unit. This made it possible on the basis of a single chassis to create a variety of modifications of passenger, and even trucks, laying the foundation for modularity. At the beginning of the XX century came even before it was attached to one chassis a set of interchangeable bodies - for example, an outdoor "summer" and indoor "winter" that wealthy owners changed according to the season.
It is significant that the very idea of the chassis frame has been borrowed from the most advanced at the time of the mode of transport - rail, as horse-drawn carriages treated wooden frame of the body due to the much lower loads. Borrowing achievements of advanced fields of technology and in the future will have a huge impact on the development of the automotive industry, which, in turn, over time, become one of the main "engine" of the industrial economy. Initially, the frame was made of hard wood, at least - round tubes. In the first decade of the XX century became widespread frame of extruded profiles of rectangular cross section, on trucks and their construction to the present time has changed only in details.
Specific details of cars of those years were: a massive angular front bonnet to the radiator in front of the: even if the engine is located under the seat, radiator and bonnet imitation often still placed ahead of the front seat as a decorative item, under such a "hood" sometimes hiding the fuel tank; lacquered wooden box, usually with a simple cut-outs instead of doors;.
Most cars of this era were open; closed bodies were very high - about two meters, because they were in full growth, both in the carriage. Actually, by design they are reminded karetu.Tipy bodies differ huge variety of all-time and the number of symbols, most of which had no clear universally accepted values; but in general, almost all of them were limited to several types: a small open car with one row of seats; large outdoor car with two rows of seats; big car with closed rear passenger seats and open the driver's seat; a big car with a similar carriage on a fully closed body.
At the end of the 1910s there is a compositional union of the body, consisting of a plurality of previously disparate, unrelated to each other geometric shapes together. It is made a smooth transition from the bonnet to the body itself, to replace the cuts in the sidewall finally had to close the door. You receive a single horizontal line of the belt, which extends over the entire length of the vehicle and emphasizes its compositional unity. As a rule, it is further accentuate the horizontal molding that was originally necessary for technological reasons piece: body while sheathed by a relatively small pieces of sheet metal - for example, the lower part of the door panel and the top surrounding the window frame were individual parts - and unsightly joints between them covered moldings. The height of the closed body is somewhat reduced - to about 1750 ... 1850 mm, changing way of fastening springs to bridges: now they do not pass over and under the bridge girders (in English this type of axle designated "anderslang Spring», underslung spring - not to be confused with common type underslung chassis, which itself bridges located above the frame). However, it makes cars more squat, reduces shaking, improves stability and controllability, which opens opportunities for further growth rates. the vehicle speed increases, and it becomes necessary piece windshield protects the driver and passengers from the air flow. Wings get more advanced form, they begin to perform as a die forging, which improves the appearance and protection from splashing.
Twenties and early thirties (1919-1932):
During this period, significant changes have occurred in the appearance of cars. The focus was not improving appearance, and design and manufacturing technology. After the First World War, the car finally turned from expensive toys in the necessary means of transport, and the main task was to establish mass production. The first step in this direction was the assembly-line production, first used on a large scale at Henry Ford plants in 1914. Nevertheless, for a long time as a deterrent in the way of increasing issue volumes remained employed for the body frame-panel technology, inherited from past masters coach.
Production of frame-panel body began with the frame of solid wood (beech, maple, ash, oak - tinsmith different countries favored different materials) with the metal fittings of (elbows, staples, plates, scarves, pillows). Wooden frame parts in small workshops bodywork manufactured using hand tools on the patterns, and in mass production - by milling and copying machines as rifle Lodge (an example of such frame is shown in the illustration). However, in any case required careful adjustment of the individual components in place, especially had a very complex set of private bodies. The great problem, and has not found a satisfactory solution to the massive vehicles, was the elimination of creaking wooden frame during the operation - which was achieved only by using a well-dried wood of suitable breeds and precise fitting of individual parts to one another is time-consuming. A method for manufacturing the body of the patent Ueymanna (Weymann), quite popular in the 1920s on expensive cars, assumed the existence between the wooden beams frame special resilient insert that eliminates contact between the individual parts, and within certain limits allowed them to move relative to each other. Outside the body trimmed with a flexible metal mesh, upholstered with thick calico padded with cotton wool and covered with specially treated cloth (leatherette-type), which in some cases could be covered by paint, becoming almost indistinguishable in appearance from the metal. This eliminates the creaking joints and loosening of the frame, such a body were considered very comfortable and were quite popular, although it had a very short period of service.
Over time, the wooden frame began to enter multiple metal braces, false scarves and the like amplifiers or even replace some of its parts in the metal stamping, but the imperfection of technology and conservatism bodywork long prevented widespread adoption of metal.
Ready carcass began to sheathe small panels of thin sheet steel or aluminum, attached to it by means of studs and screws. For expensive limited-edition cars they produced manually knockout hammer on a leather cushion filled with sand or cold rolling to a folding machine (so-called "English wheel"), and customized at the place directly on the frame or on a special block. Parts of complex shape, such as wings of a plurality of parts welded seams which between masked using lead-tin solder. Naturally, such a production process has been very labor intensive, and each machine gets boxed, individually. Sometimes, instead of a metal skeleton is sheathed with plywood, covered on top of leather or imitation leather padded with horsehair or wool, which played the role of noise isolation - such body considered more comfortable, even though they were very short-lived. The roof even on metal bodies in the vast majority of cases trimmed with faux leather top armor-clad grid and packing, as the technology is not allowed to receive the whole of the sheet metal panel of this size and such a complex shape.
n the mass production of low-power applied stamping equipment, allows to obtain deep drawing only a small curvature of the panel. Transactions with major parts made of thin sheet metal, very prone to deformation during transport - such as the rear wall of the body "sedan" - have been a huge problem, so the panel sizes have tried to restrict, for example, siding door was usually of two separate panels - bottom , from the threshold to the waist molding, and the top, surrounding the frame of the door glass. Another reason for this was that in the process of moving the body had measurable deformation, so that to prevent contacts between their ends and deformation cladding sheets had to be sewn on a wooden frame with gaps that are closed moldings. However, the aesthetic requirements dictate, on the contrary, the least possible number of joints between the panels, which forced to compromise.
Due to the complexity and labor intensity of manufacturing nyuansnosti frame-panel body most of the major car manufacturers in those years they themselves do not engage in the production, instead of what they ordered specialist coachbuilder. Luxury cars are generally usually delivered in the form of chassis units for which the customer can order any body in its sole discretion - as the company's standard of the directory containing the typical products of its partners, bodywork and completely arbitrary. Even the "Ford" with its line assembly of many car bodies, in particular - closed, ordered outside coachbuilder. So, for the body on the chassis sedans Ford Model A (1927-1931) supplied studio Briggs and Murray. Often the engineers who designed the car, in the creation of a body did not participate, respectively, in the perception arising from the driving forces of the body did not accept any participation - all of them were in the frame, which accounted respectively amplify. This, coupled with the extremely low weight of body discipline production of those years - tinsmith, not owning technique strength calculations, definitely prefer an excess of wood in the framework of its lack - lead to eerie pereutyazheleniyu car. Transferred to the automotive industry of aviation and accustomed to a somewhat different approach to weight design Gabriel Voisin lamented that body studio are only able to "fill up the chassis of cars oak logs and piles of stupid piece of iron" (he later completely abandoned their services, one of the first car manufacturers clicking on the issue of own body).
The appearance and design of units of the car in this period remained virtually unchanged compared with the end of the 1910s, but the units are refined and the body becomes more and more integrated and harmonious. car shape, angular and static, is largely determined by its design and body manufacturing technology. Bodies remained high, counting on the fact that they could not enter bent and his hat.
In most cases we used classical layout, dependent front and rear suspension. Beams front and rear axles were attached to the frame with leaf springs - passing beneath the longitudinal or transverse situated. To lower the center of gravity is high, the vehicle unstable, the engine was placed between the lower side members of the frame front, within the base.
Before the engine, directly above the front axle beam, high installed radiator. High radiator layout improves the circulation of the coolant. For motor staged two rows of seats, the rear seat has covers over the rear wheels; The car gets a very large base, but almost no front and rear overhangs. The front and rear attachment points springs determined length of the car. Wheels have become somewhat smaller tire is wider still used needles - type bicycle metal, wood or less, "artillery" type. For inexpensive machines appear stamped wheel discs.
The shape of the car was dominated by vertical lines - vertically mounted flat windscreen, rectangular window openings, not rounded at the corners, "four-wheel" rear body wall with a small window for review, vertical at the top and which had a reverse slope at the bottom. The passenger compartment held the entire length of the chassis from the engine compartment shield up to the rear wall of the body, so that the luggage space was left. Lack of space for luggage inside the body compensated by numerous external load carriers-grids - their disposal not only the roof but also on the footboards or brackets fixed to the sidewalls or the rear of the body - which is attached to a special suitcase - "trunks", compositionally not linked with a body. Most widespread chemodan- "trunk", attached to the rear of the body, which was a pretty obvious hint at who later became almost mandatory for the sedan a third visual volume. In Russian, the trunk can be called "suitcase" as early as the 1940s, and in the English usage is preserved to this day (the literal meaning of the word trunk - it is the "suitcase"). The front wings are separate, stamped, but with a shallow stretch, smoothly into the bandwagon, and then in the rear wing, separate from the body.
Tripping was needed: half a body mounted on a frame, he was high above the ground. Rama has remained relatively high, and the body is still located directly on it, so the rapids between the body and the footrest have high mud flaps covering the frame and brackets footrests. Spare wheel (often - spare tires, as the reliability and durability of the tires in those years were not great, but on the roads in large numbers occurred nails from horses' hooves) fastened open on the front wing near the hood or behind the rear wall of the body.
The second important step towards mass motorisation was spread all-metal sealed body, first used on the car model Dodge brothers in 1914. Compared with a body having a wooden frame, all-metal is not only stronger and lighter, but much smarter, much better adapted for mass production. The original design of these bodies did not differ essentially from the device timber (frame-body panel) - only wooden frame beams were replaced with steel stamping a similar shape, but the possibility of widespread use of welding to connect the individual components dramatically increased productivity.
However, the transition to all-metal construction lasted until the beginning of the 1930s. Some elements of the framework can be wooden and in the 1930s, and on high-end cars, which at that time were based solely piece, for individual orders, so that manufacturability issues for them a special role is not playing, wooden body lasted until the middle of the decade . On the bus, this technology was used in the post-war years.
Changing body technology significantly influenced their range. If before the end of the twenties closed bodies were rare, because their production on the old technology has been very time-consuming and was very slow, and the main type was an open four-seater, four-door "orig" - it is now about half of its vehicles - a sedan, a two-and four-door, with curious that the closed body, unlike our time, were significantly more open. However, were issued under the new sedans technology inherited from their predecessors karetoobraznyh visually non-winning form - with the dominant passenger compartment, massive and angular.
The transition to mass production of conveyor vehicles allowed to dramatically increase productivity, improve its intensity, and significantly reduce the cost of the car. On the assembly line Ford gathered cheapest car standard single model: a simple shape, angular, devoid of any decoration, while even - only black. Thanks to the conveyor car has become accessible to a wide range of buyers.
In the early thirties, American manufacturers are moving to annual restyling of its models - now the look of American cars has undergone minor changes with the start of each new model year (in the autumn of the previous calendar), and every few years has been made to change the entire body to a more modern. This allowed the public to easily distinguish between the cars of past years and issued in the current model year, respectively, spurred consumers to buy new cars every year - among the wealthiest Americans, it soon became good manners.
The changes are now taking place much faster. For example, if Ford T stayed on the line for two decades from 1908 to 1927 with only one significant change appearance in 1917, the next model, Ford A, it was produced from 1927 to 1931. Next model, Ford B, lasted from 1932 to 1934, and every year it looks making an important innovation.
However, the cars of the early thirties is very little different from the late twenties models - the "Great Depression" not too contributed to the introduction of any innovation. However, it followed the economic crisis, on the contrary, caused a sharp intensification of competition for the rapidly shrinking market, an important tool which has become just the look of the car. Therefore, already in 1933, with the beginning of the next refresh cycle model series, followed by another round of American car design.
The middle and second half of the thirties (1933-1939):
Quite a dramatic change in the style of cars come closer to the mid-thirties. In America, the main changes occur in 1933 and 1934 model years, in the rest of the world they came later.
It was a period of economic recession in the industrialized countries, which contributed to a significant intensification of the struggle for the buyer. Therefore, much attention has been paid to improve the visual appeal of the car, as well as the individualization of models of different brands.
During these years, it manifested factor which has had a decisive influence on the change in shape of the car - speed. Car - Fleet machine that interacts with the motion of air, and therefore must obey the laws of the construction of the natural motion of bodies, the laws of aerodynamics. The streamlined shape helps to reduce the cost of engine power to overcome air resistance, and consequently, lower fuel consumption and improve the aerodynamic stability.
Form me as if the incoming airflow deformed car. The bodies begin to dominate the composition diagonal lines. Windshield, yet flat, tilted back. Free-standing on the wings of lights took teardrop shape. Earlier, the angular shape of the body smoothed, rounded. Exterior rear wall is now performed tilted inward toward the passenger compartment, in contrast to the previously common body in which it is inclined in the opposite direction - "on Karetny". Instead of suitcases-wardrobe trunks on it is attached to the back wall there is a "consignment" trunk, yet as a separate volume from the body and raised on it resembling a hump, but with rounded, smooth contours. The roof began to do less and with rounded corners. By the second half of the decade became popular relatively low roof low okoshkami- "loopholes", as opposed to high (almost 2 meters), "a coach" of a body with a large glass area characteristic of the previous era, when designers make a choice in favor of a "space for hats "- although the total height of the body remains quite significant, not least because of the frame structure with its highly positioned spars, and the car still enter, stepping on the bandwagon, but do not sit down.
Instead of openly installed radiator, covered decorative lining, beginning to be widely applied, pressed forward made by the radiator mask defining the front end design of the car. The shape of the radiator mask becomes a "calling card" products, you can quickly identify the firm released the car, so try to make its design more personal and memorable as possible. Radiator grille becomes first V-shaped, and a little later acquires a semi-circular cross section.
Changes the method of attachment of the front wings - now they are not attached directly to the frame, and in a special die-extension - mud flaps, engine compartment, so that the internal, converted to the hood, fenders part becomes higher and convex, forming a hood with a single volume. The area of the wings themselves increases, their form becomes more advanced - which required significant improvement stamping technology - now they are much better for closing minor exterior parts - the frame, suspension components; it changes the overall impression of the car, making it look more solid. At the same time improved frame design and body - if before the body was almost literally "put" on the frame over her spars, now its outer sills carry lower, they "cover" the frame on each side and make unnecessary side mud guards can reduce the floor height the cabin and the entire vehicle.
A new form demanded a new technology body. Macrophylla is used stamping and spot welding. The method of manufacturing the large body parts deep drawing require a large surface curvature and smooth transitions. Hence - a rounded, convex shape of the car. Those years were a period of mass non-wood in the body structure. For example, in the "Ford" in 1934 it was only a wooden side roof rail. first production monocoque were created without a full frame, replaced by some stretchers in the extremities.
In Europe, at the same time there is a flourishing body studio, build a road car-based chassis factory for individual orders. Given the trend of the era, it is not surprising that a very significant part of the production of the company amounted to aerodynamic body (or rather, still psevdoaerodinamicheskie - a truly streamlined most of them were not). Especially many of these machines have been created on the basis of the French firm Delahaye chassis.
In Italy in 1936, coachbuilder Carrozzeria Touring patents developed by Felice Bianchi Anderloni new way of creating an automobile body which has been called Superleggera - «superlёgky" in Italian. Body type "superleggera" consisted of a very light, delicate skeleton of steel tubes and imposed on him the thin panels from aircraft-grade aluminum or duralumin, moreover they are not fixed rigidly to the frame tubes, but only recorded on it in several places - window and door openings, notches, holes - largely maintaining independent mobility. Since a thin frame was not able to take the weight of aggregates and efforts resulting from the movement of the car, the body "superleggera" maintained usual frame for the type of time, so that should not be confused with a monocoque body and space frame. Nevertheless, it was an important step forward - not only due to a sharp relief to use compared to earlier design with a wooden frame, but also due to the fact that so-bodies could be given a very complex form, is practically limited only by imagination bodywork. Undoubtedly, this is the way for you to quickly and with relatively small investment to get the body is very complex form has played a huge role in the development of the Italian automobile design.
Some manufacturers have chosen to use aerodynamic principles even further.
These include cars line Airflow brands Chrysler and De Soto's release 1934-1937 and emulate them, such as Toyota AA 1936 Volvo PV 36 «Carioca». Airflow cars had already in 1934 many of the attributes that will be accepted only at the end of the thirties: V-shaped windshield, recessed lights, sloping back wall of the body, closed the rear wheel arches and so on. However, in those years, they were not clear to the public, and a special series of commercial success had. The great success achieved line Airstream models with much more traditional design, which differ from other cars generally more "zalizannostyu" psevdoobtekaemym contours and design of small parts - headlights, their arms, turn signals, etc.
Particularly successful was the original form and rear-car Tatra T77, releases from 1934 to 1938, as well as an upgraded "Tatras» T87, serialized from 1936 to 1950. For these cars were characterized by teardrop-shaped rear end, rounded hood, front (or rather, the tailgate), panoramic windshield (made up of three flat parts), recessed in the wings lights, rear fenders, fully Absorbed body side, roof, descending smoothly to the rear and a buffer having a rear fin stabilizer to increase aerodynamic stability.
The long, tapering tail of the car, uncomfortable for passengers, has taken engine. Frame spinal applied, consisting of a rectangular cross section of the pipe to which the front and rear were welded forks for mounting the engine and suspension.
These decisions helped to create a spacious cabin make the car squat (height "Tatra" T77 was less than 1 500 mm, which was very little for those years) and very streamlined (realistic values of the aerodynamic drag coefficient T77 is 0.34 ... 0.36 - is close to the production car the late eighties.
Subsequently, many models zadnemotornyh cars, including the future "Volkswagen Beetle" were created in a very close pattern. However, in general, this variant design of the body was "side branch", and further widespread yet not received.
It is worth noting that in terms of aerodynamics body teardrop shape was essentially futile for production cars: they had not even compared with angular bodies of mass models of those years they did give significant gains in aerodynamics, reserves for its further improvement with respect to the vehicle, general purpose . The fact that the teardrop shape is almost perfect in terms of aerodynamics only when the "right" body proportions. And if, say, the airplane fuselage their achievement was quite real, in the case of a car following them at the registration would be suitable for the minimum ride height position of passengers required to bring it up to 8 ... 9 meters, which is very difficult in practice. "Mercedes-Benz" in the late thirties, built under this scheme racing Mercedes-Benz T80, which with a length of 8240 mm and a height of 1 740 mm have the "correct" proportion drops and unique even by today's standards a drag coefficient of 0.18 - but at the cost of complete lack of practicality in terms of everyday use. When you save the reasonable length of the car body with guttate its height it would have to be reduced to values as unacceptable - at least 1 meter, as in racing "stars" Peltzer.
If the "drop" to shorten, retaining the character of its contours, but not on its own contour perfectly streamlined body, adjusting the proportions of a need for placement in a body of passengers - as did the creators of the "Tatras" and "Bug" - aerodynamic resistance is growing rapidly due to occurrence of chunking airflow vortices to form all along the contour of the roof. And if next to the still very angular bodywork mid thirties reduction in aerodynamic drag through the use of drop-back of it was very noticeable that in comparison with a rather sleek trёhobёmnymi sedans late thirties - early forties, with their characteristic "slicked" contours, the effect was not too significant - especially if the tear-back part combined with performed according to the requirements of fashion, not aerodynamics front, moreover, in the case of the car the "classic" layout burdened with numerous openings for the cooling air passage, far-reaching streamlining benefit. As a result, the effect of the use of drop-shaped body turned out to be generally more decorative - in this case the conditions of passengers and luggage in it were significantly worse than in the back, which has a more traditional shape, which played a role in the decline of the popularity of drop-shaped bodies in the first half of the fifties.
At the same time - the end of the thirties - the Swiss specialist in the field of aerodynamics Vunibald Kamm found a better solution - the so-called "kammbek". Such a body roof line in exactly the same form guttate perfectly streamlined body - the penalty drops - but tapering rear portion of this drop, as it were "cut off" (see figure.). It turned out that, despite the appearance of turbulence zones for "stump" of the tail, wrap this body, in contrast to the short-drop-shaped, remains generally orderly, laminar. Kamma achieved aerodynamic drag coefficient of about 0.23, while maintaining reasonable dimensions of the car - also found their form has been very perfect in terms of the accommodation of passengers and cargo. Later, as it became clear that this form of car safer at high speed due to the occurrence of additional wind power, "pressing" him to the road and increases the resistance. However, obtained on the basis of her car was, to put it mildly, is so unusual for that time of the public that the followers he had not a very long time. The massive spread of this form of body received only today, when such a body have very many small hatchbacks, for example, Toyota Prius (aerodynamic drag coefficient of 0.25). Teardrop-shaped body is almost disappeared in the mid-fifties, being ousted trehobёmnymi sedans were more "understandable" to the public in terms of appearance.
In the thirties, the public has "rasprobovali" vehicle capacity in the vehicle at high speed and the road sector in the developed countries was to let realize this potential in practice, with the result that in these years have experienced one of the first peak of popularity a powerful, high-speed vehicles, yet - as expensive, inaccessible to the masses wonders motorists. Since the possibility of increasing specific (liter) engines power in those years, in the absence of widely available high-octane gasoline and primitive lubricating oils, they were very limited (even Duesenberg engines with four valves per cylinder and drive blower with 1 liter working volume issued just over 45 hp -.. comparable to those of motors "classic" VAZ), powerful engines of those years had a very large work volume - up to 10 ... 11 liters - and the corresponding dimensions. As a rule, they were either in-line - up to 8 cylinders in line, built by the scheme or V12 or V16, which was caused in the first place a very large size in length. Therefore, hoods powerful car gets too very long. There was a fashion for cars with a long hood. Even if the car is parked on a short drive to the mediocre performance - it still makes a long bonnet to accentuate the dynamic qualities. Subsequently, these proportions have been well forgotten, due to the emergence and development of a consistent idea of projecting from the rear wall of the body trunk being superseded by more harmonious relationship between the length of the front and rear overhangs. They were revived in the mass cars only in the mid-sixties, that is absolutely not accidental superimposed on the next peak "horsepower race."
In the mid-thirties appeared on the mass models, and in the late thirties - early forties widespread independent suspension front wheels. This has significantly improved the layout of production cars.
The engine was able to advance and position the lower, fixed on the front suspension cross member. Accordingly, moved forward and grille - now she performed for the edge of the front wings, resulting in a front part of the car has become more seamless and harmonious.
The seats in the cabin, too, moved forward, and settled into a more comfortable zone within the base, leaving behind the rear seat backrest appeared luggage space - the first time there is integrated into the body of a real trunk. Improve the car's proportions, the body began to lower, as the rear seat is now located above the rear axle is not as before, and in front of it, making it possible to significantly lower the back of the sofa cushion. The front seat also was lower, as the floor in the cabin dropped significantly. One gets the distinguished name for cars low landing driver and passengers, as opposed to the typical trucks and buses high landing. The spare wheel is now placed in the trunk. Dimensions of the car's wheels again decreased (on average up to 16 ... 17 ") wheels on almost all vehicles began to use steel, stamped. Get becoming more common V-shaped windshields instead of the previous flat. Bumper get more advanced and elaborate form of rectangular become curved appear calling on the sidewall of "ears" and two to four massive "fangs" car body finally become all-metal, without wooden details another characteristic trend -.. the gradual extinction of the classic coupes and a significant reduction in the number of public bodies Some types of open cars. such as roadsters and especially the carriages, by the end of the 30s has practically ceased to produce massive series.
It was during these years appear and spread quickly get the first real-rounders in the modern sense of the word. However, unlike other vehicles, they operate exclusively with wooden bodies, with no wood stain and varnish, making it a natural texture of the additional decorative element (style «Woody», Woodie). Although this technology due to the high price, for interior decoration due to its utilitarian, they often were much more primitive than ordinary passenger cars, and this was probably closer to the buses. Later this style occasionally perform other body styles - sedan, fastback, even coupes and convertibles, but generally it was a wood trim, and the body was still mainly metal (eg Chrysler in the forties has released a whole line of Town & Country luxury vehicles half-timbered bodies in Woodie style, include a full range - a sedan, station wagon, convertible and hardtop coupe-even).
The last pre-war cars (1940-1941):
Body Form of American car production 1940-1942 model years (the last pre-war generation) got its further development. In fashion finally come, "stucco", "exaggerated" form.
Bodies become more generalized form, become more integral. Separate volumes begin to merge with each other, the transitions between them are smoothed disappears fine detailing. Radiator Mask blends with the front wings, forming a unified front body panel. Front fenders - elongated, resembling the body of a smooth flow, firmly pressed to the side and merge with it in the area of the front door (the so-called "suitcase"). Hood - usually alligator type - smoothly into the body. Facing the radiator into a wide grille on the front of the body. On new cars body width exceeds its height, which is reflected in the transition to a horizontal pattern grille, made up of small details. The roof rounded shape smoothly into the rear panel and the ends rounded, convex trunk.
The most advanced models make out on a "through-wing" - the volume of the front fenders on these machines were very long, went to the sidewall and connected to the rear. The greatest spread of this style get in the post-war years, and especially her loved Avtosrtoiteley UK.
Lights fade as an independent element of body styles, combining with other volumes of the body, but different designers solved this problem in different ways - sometimes even in the production of one firm may meet a completely different arrangement of the headlights. For example, in the pre-war Opel Kadett and Opel Admiral lights located on either side of the bonnet in particular the fade, and models Opel Kapitan - on the front wings, front top. In the latest model headlight lenses have rounded shape of a hexagon, other cars late thirties they could be in the form of an ellipse or another other than circular. On some models, there are transparent fairings before the lights on the other - make the lights themselves in retractable wings, for example, on vehicles DeSoto brand. The car headlights Adler 2,5 Liter elliptical shape were located directly on the engine hood, the sides of the radiator grille and on the Horch 930 S Stromlinie - also on the sides of the lattice, but is very low, almost directly above the bumper. At Mercedes-Benz 540 Kompressor with an aerodynamic body lights located on the front fenders, front, it is also very low.
Improves body manufacturing technology, which immediately affects their visual quality. On the body panels become less unnecessary joints and welds, hinges doors and the boot lid are hidden from outside, opening side hood is replaced with alligator whole, opening up back.
It was in these years appeared trёhobёmny silhouette body "sedan", characteristic of him to this day. They competed with teardrop fastback rear. A small step covered the lower part of the doors, on some models, there is no step.
The design of American cars of this era often characterized by extravagance and even eclectic. Especially it concerns the production of "independent" producers, not absorbed three largest Avtosrtoiteley as part of GM, Ford and Chrysler - such as Nash, Studebaker, Graham-Paige, and others.
In addition to appearance, change and salons. Improves their finishing, there are adjustable in length front sofas, armrests. Beginning in the late thirties in the United States begins the transition from the floor to the gear lever located on the steering column, more convenient and giving freely accommodate the three of us in the front seat.
Unlike America, motorists that while in the bulk could already afford quite large and comfortable car in Europe at the same time went actively seeking the concept of "people's runabout" - a small but acceptable as a family transport low-cost car, adapted for mass production.
At the auto show in Berlin in 1939 he was first seen by the Austrian Ferdinand Porsche designed a small car rear-KdF unusual streamlined shape, designed for mass production. Round roof falls steeply to the back buffer, the trunk lid - the same rounded shape; recessed lights in the wings; flat windshield; strongly rounded, small window openings. Before the war the KdF never reached mass production - subscribe to the German workers, instead of the car received a summons to the army, where, incidentally, some of them still were able to partly fulfill his dream car behind the wheel of his military modifications - "kyubelvagena". But after the defeat of Germany, the car under the name of Volkswagen 1200, became available in large quantities, breaking all records of longevity, and became one of the symbols of the "German economic miracle". During his vehicle form called "bug". However, many of the accepted design on it and designs reproduced on the product used former employer Porsche, the Czech concern "Richthofen» - Tatra 97. Start of production of the latter after the occupation of Czechoslovakia by Hitler considered it necessary to avoid.
It is another way to go for the same purpose by the French. Creating a prototype of the future of the Citroen 2CV, engineer Henri Lefebvre established a tiny two-cylinder engine motorcycle-type front and used the drive to the front axle, which, unlike the "Beetle", yielded to the rear rather spacious luggage compartment - the most important characteristic of a typical buyer's point of view 2CV, the French farmer. To this were added the original chassis with independent suspension all wheels and utilitarian to primitiveness, extremely lightweight body with a base plate, cooked mostly from steel panels single curvature. Although similar to the ladybug and the machine did not differ cross-Q or "Bug", it was quite suitable to move on relatively good roads, and won at home immense popularity, significantly ahead of "Beetle" for the duration of release in Europe.
In those same years he worked on the "people's car" car industry of Great Britain, but, true to the traditional conservatism, the British chose the classic layout and proven, even archaic technical solutions, "Twins» Ford Anglia (two-door) and Ford Prefect (four-door), in his time former one of the cheapest cars in the world, is a rather old-fashioned-looking, very simple in design - much in the spirit of Ford Model A - and in the production of cars. The success of these cars have already eloquently of the fact that their design was the basis for the pre-war Soviet project "people's car" KIM plant.
The first post-war generation (1945-1948):
After World War II, some producers were vehicles with fundamentally different from the pre-war design. In Europe, the first such models become Soviet "Victory" M-20 (1946) and English Standard Vanguard (1947), in the US - Kaiser-Frazer (1946). These cars instead of the individual volumes of the front and rear fenders appears a single volume with a smooth sidewall - pontoon. It is possible not only to achieve a fundamentally different stylistic solutions body as a whole, but also to expand the salon, without increasing the overall width of the car, greatly improve the streamlining and, at the same time, reduce the cost of production. Designed such machines in the past, but on the conveyors, they were only in the early postwar years.
One of the first representatives of this trend in the design was the Soviet "Victory" M-20. The shape of her body was concise and really original. Gender was significantly lowered body and go into the car has become easier, thanks to which disappeared as unnecessary steps - it is possible to expand the body without increasing the width of the machine. Lights recessed into the wings - in fact, the wings in the conventional sense was not, because the front and rear wings merged with the bottom of the door in a single volume, gradually tapering to the rear end of the car. By car used an independent front suspension, a short drive moved forward and placed over the cross members Front suspension, rear seat managed to place within the database before the housings rear wheels - got a seat with a width sufficient for the loose-fitting three people, despite the relatively compact dimensions of the car . Improve the car's proportions, the body has become even lower (1600 mm), the size of the wheels was reduced to 16 "Had such an arrangement and disadvantages -. For example, reducing the height of the body in general and the floor has led to the appearance on the floor of the tunnel for the propeller shaft, which is 30 cars ies for the most part absent. But this put up because of the presence in the new layout of the more significant advantages.
The maximum cross-section has moved forward and was placed in the middle (most cars previous releases the maximum cross-section was in the rear, in the area of Triple rear seat, which is located above the rear wheel housings). Slight slope of the roof, smooth sidewalls, devoid of any decoration, the proportion of successful monocoque made the car sleek.
Meanwhile, for all its benefits, not all manufacturers were quick to jump on the pontoon style.
In war-ravaged Europe, most companies simply do not have the money for the development and implementation in production of new cars, so the production lines, along with relatively few new models, continued to descend and modernized the old, pre-war. Actually, it can be well illustrated by the range of the Soviet automobile industry in those years, where modern "victory" side by side pre-war development of the "Moskvich-400". Such stylistic "diversity" model series in general was characteristic of this period of transition, and it ended only in the fifties.
In the US, the European situation is reversed, but with about the same results. During the war, American automakers were forced to stop release of cars, but to reap huge profits from the production of military products, generously paid by the state, with the result that came to mid-forties with a good financial "Zhirkov." Meanwhile, to invest the accumulated assets in the immediate development of new models, they were in no hurry, because the hungry during the war years buyers hurry to buy any new cars on the market and created an excessive demand, which had to meet without delay to the development of fundamentally new models.
As a result, despite the fact that during the pre-war and war years almost all major US automotive companies have developed a range of promising vehicles with modern pontoon bodies, in 1946 model year, the vast majority of them resumed production of its last pre-war models 1942 model year that went into a series of autumn 1941 calendar. If the differences were, then mostly cosmetic: varied decorative elements, radiator grille changed toward reducing the number of components and increase their size, slightly increased engine power, and so on.
The end of the forties - early fifties (1948-1954):
This is an extremely important landmark period in the development of cars. It was in the late forties - early fifties emerged and established architecture of the car body, in general terms, continuing today, and there were a proliferation of many of the stylistic and technical solutions used in the automotive industry until the present day. In fact, this is the length of time plays the role of a kind of "watershed" between these two, to some extent arbitrary, but differ radically among themselves categories - "pre-war" and "post-war" cars.
After World War II, which gave impetus to the rapid development of all branches of technology, advances in the automotive industry has accelerated, so the new models, forms and technical solutions appeared at this time a hitherto unprecedented speed. Wanting to forget the years of hard war, people welcomed all new and unusual, so the entire automotive end of the forties and fifties, all have been a period of continuous search for new solutions, forms, materials and technologies.
For 1948-1949 years in Europe and in the US on conveyors en masse began to rise cars, and entirely "from scratch" is already developed in the postwar years. For the most part these cars late forties is a variation on the theme of all the same, familiar on the "Victory" and its analogues, a pontoon style.
In Europe, the pontoon body with a smooth sidewall in these years has dominated the newly developed models.
The nineties and the beginning of two thousandth (1990-2005):
In the nineties there is a further development in the eighties found stylistic themes of the body. Cars the beginning of the nineties in fact little different from the style of the end of the previous decade. The main differences are the mass distribution of bumpers painted to match the body - instead of black or gray, the fashion for a more narrow and complex shaped head optics used previously and flush flat door handles, as well as the final rejection of the use of brilliant detail in the decoration, completely replaced by matte black surfaces.
Mid nineties is characterized by the proliferation of so-called "biodesign" imitating characteristic wildlife sleek. Pre-existing trend towards streamlining brought to the extremes, and cars become very round, "lick" shaped like a rounded pebbles.
The widespread use of computer technology in the design of car bodies has allowed to create the surface of a much more complex shape than before, and the use of industrial robots has allowed a new generation of exactly match such complex body panels during assembly.
Those computers are allowed to create and lights practically arbitrary shape, for the first time moving away from two well-known types of optical elements - round and rectangular or close to them in the form. Despite the relatively high cost of manufacture, the lens unit complex shape immediately received a large spread due to the possibility of using a form of headlights individualized appearance of the car, to make it more distinctive. There are lights and taillights the most complex configurations. Before that they were located usually horizontally, starting from the second half of the nineties are widely distributed headlights and taillights, oriented diagonally.
In 1996, he goes into a series of Volkswagen Passat B5, a body which had an unusually large for those years, height - 1458 mm. It is possible to create a much more spacious cabin than the competition, with a comfortable and freer "high" landing driver and passengers - this feature is widely spread afterwards. He also became one of the pioneers in the use of more convenient door handles "on a natural grip."
In 1997, the Ford Ka comes with a revolutionary new principle for the time of formation. In it for the first time to use the "geometric" style of New Edge - «New Line", with his typical "computer", "geometric" form of the body. In his appearance as much as possible to use pure geometric shapes - triangles, arcs. Car Shape defined edges at the intersections of these figures.
In 1998, there are massive Ford Focus and Ford Cougar, using the same design techniques. For the Focus was also characterized by a high landing driver and passengers allowed to place them as comfortably as possible and create a spacious interior in a relatively compact car. Later, based on the same stylistic and layout solutions has created a model of mid-range Ford Mondeo III.
In 1999 he was presented to the public model Audi TT with a rational "computer" geometry of the body lines. Soon, the same geometry was the basis for the design of mass models of the company.
Since that time, the roundness in its purest form is replaced by a combination of rounded and faceted form elements. The trend toward merging the three volumes into one disappear - modern sedans are usually very clearly defined three-volume.
The maximum spread of this style had already been on our time - the 2000s. Today it is used by most manufacturers of modern cars in the world.
In the late 1990s - early 2000s was a wave of "nostalgic" design features of the past revives car - usually thirties - fifties. Typical representatives of this trend, especially characteristic of the US - Chrysler PT Cruiser and Ford Thunderbird latest generation 2002-2005. Subsequently, the "nostalgic" tendencies went on the decline, but the individual elements and trends, such as more abundant than in the preceding period the use of chromium – remained.
Our Days (2005-Now):
Modern cars do relatively high - the height of production sedans is about 1.5 meters, allowing you to optimally accommodate the driver and passengers, to create a spacious cabin without excessive increase in the size of the car. Some cars make even higher, for example sedan Nissan Tiida has a height of 1535 mm. This is a direct result characteristic of the previous decade in the high fashion "hardwood" SUVs and minivans, as a result of which the consumer is accustomed to high landing and a spacious interior, typical for these cars.
Since such a massive smooth sidewall began to look too bulky, it became visually break - first at the expense of huge otbortovok wheel arches, as Ford Focus Mk I, and then using the "muscular" vyshtampovok resembling simulate separate the front and rear wings on the post-war vehicles (and having the same purpose - the sidewall aspect ratio correction of the body at the expense of splitting it into several portions), such as on the Nissan Juke.
There is a tendency to an ever greater increase in the diameter of the wheel and tire dimension, with a corresponding decrease in their profile. This allows not only to improve the appearance of relatively high vehicles due to a better proportioning, and placed inside the wheel more powerful brake mechanisms of large diameter. Today, the production of passenger cars can be found, and 18-inch wheels, although more in the eighties, even on large sedans set a maximum of 15-inch.
An important influence on the shape of cars beginning to have ideas of passive safety, the requirements for which have increased significantly since the beginning of the crash tests by Euro NCAP program in the second half of the nineties. Low results are shown in them considered safe even models, caused a public outcry and active work on the creation of the safest cars.
To date, all world class manufacturers brought their products to the level of compliance with the new standards of safety in a frontal collision. for safety in a side impact and pedestrian protection - Soon, however, in the test program, two new have been added. decisions were made to improve the performance of these cars is directly influenced their appearance.
The need to improve safety in a side impact has led to the appearance of bodies with high, good protects the sidewall and thicker doors. Now cars have a high waist line and a relatively low roof with a very thick, massive pillars. The roofline became determined to become the beginning of the 2000s, almost conventional "arched" power structure of the body side, in pure form for the first time appeared on the series "Audi" end 90 and provides the highest rigidity of the body.
To ensure the safety of pedestrian protection is necessary to increase the distance between the hood and the engine power unit to provide the necessary energy absorbing deformation - it leads to the appearance of cars with significantly higher hood.
Aerodynamics thus continues to improve: the latest advances in this field allow us to expect the appearance in the near future, vehicles with mass of about 0.2 Ci. In the 2010s production cars already have about 0.25 Cx.
In recent decades there has been widespread transition to the new high-tech automotive types of optics: ordinary lights with classical reflector and lens are replaced by "linzovannaya" optics that gives the best light, taillights and other additional lighting devices based on LEDs operate. At the same time in vogue transparent colorless glass rear lights and turn signals, which are located under the colored LEDs, or light bulb - instead of the characteristic of previous eras lamps with colored glasses.
Литература:
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Песков, В. И. Основы эргономики и дизайна автомобиля. Учебное пособие. — Н. Новгород: Нижегородский Государственный Технический Университет, 2004. — С. 30. — 225 с. —
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Учебное пособие