VII Международная студенческая научная конференция Студенческий научный форум - 2015

Learning foreign languages is not only about learning the language itself but as well as about learning all aspects of this language. Nowadays it is clearly seen that the learning foreign languages encompasses the cultural aspect of the language. Moreover, the need of learning the cultural aspect of the language and the national peculiarities of the target language is growing. The consideration of such aspect allowed us to come close to the languages and become aware of national and geographical and historical peculiarities of English and French people.

The knowledge of the lingo cultural aspects of the language is thought as the crucial side to the improvement of the knowledge of the target language. The object of the cultural linguistics is the system of language with consideration its cultural aspect, the national mentality of the nation and the toponymy which is part of national world view. The national and cultural component of the semantics of phraseological units which is the toponyms is considered to be as one ways to come close to the cultural aspects of the language.

The most important fact is that the phraseological units with toponyms allow finding the archetypal cultural opposition of their own –another’s or foreign. According to the work of Urazmetova phraseological units can be deeply investigated and perused from the linguocultural aspect. [1]

Toponym is defined as a place name or a word coined in association with the name of a place. The study of such place names is known as toponymics or toponymy – a branch of onomastics. [2]. Toponymy is the scientific study of place names (toponyms) and their origins, meanings, use and spellings. The word “Toponymy” is derived from the Greek words tópos (τόπος, place) and ónoma (ὄνομα, name) and is itself a branch of onomastics, the study of names of all kinds. Toponym is a name of a locality, region, or some other part of Earth's surface, including natural features and artificial ones. Its purpose is all-round studying of place names.

During the investigation we found the definition like toponyms are the proper names of geographical objects, which impart the multifarious connotation including the linguistic and extra linguistic data. Toponym – geographical name proper noun applied to real world entity. Toponym – proper name of a place, both inhabited and uninhabited. Generally, in all definitions toponym is defined as proper noun. It should be applied to topographic feature, real world entities or place. [3, 4]

The interest to the geographical place names and to its meaning was appeared in the earliest times of the human civilization. In the antique period the tradition to explain the toponyms was seen in the historical-geographical works.

However, in previous time it was difficult to find out the etymology of toponyms. The first description and allusion about place names was found in the works of Herodotus "History", Strabo “Geography", and Pliny the Elder "Natural History". As for the foreign toponymic study actively it was developed in the XX century. Many countries have developed their own toponymic school. Significant contribution to the study of place names of various regions of the world have made A. Dose A. Sherpilё (France); Krae G., M. Fasmer (Germany), E. Ekuoll, A. Smith, A. Rum, S. Matthews (UK); A. Profouz, V. Shmilauer (Czech Republic); B. Taschitsky, J. Staszewski, S. Rospond, K. Rymut (Poland); V. Georgiev (Bulgaria); L. Kiss (Hungary), I. Jordan, G. Drago (Romania); M. Olsson (Sweden); J. R. Stewart, N. Holmer (USA), John. Armstrong (Canada), A. Cardoso (Brazil), and many other scientists. Due to the efforts of representatives of the various sciences, toponyms took its firm place in the system of scientific knowledge. [4, 12] Accordingly, all place names can be divided into classes (or groups) depending on the specific object or category. Thus, toponymic class (class of names, toponymic group) - is the sum of the names of geographical objects of the same type.

It is obvious that there are some basic classes of names. They relate to the main types of geographic features. However, the number of classes is quite significant, as the multifarious numbers of different types of geographical objects are significant. [See appendix 1]. Due to toponymic classification we found that some researchers considered particular one group of toponyms: urbanonyms, hydronyms, speleonyms, etc.

The toponymy of French and English languages represent to us the most astonishing linguistic richness and diversity As for the British place names it should be stated that the English toponyms was a complicated one. The result is that English place­names come from a variety of languages: possibly pre­British, British, Latin, Old English, and Old Norse of two varieties and Norman French. Each of these languages has contributed place names and influenced the form of existing place names. The toponyms of French are characterized by the same influences of miscellaneous languages. The French language was influenced by number languages. These include: Gaulish, the language of the Celtic peoples (of which the fictional Asterix the Gaul was one) who inhabited primarily the territory of what is now modern-day France, prior to the Roman invasions. Latin, the language of the invading Romans. Frankish, the language of the Germanic peoples who occupied this territory after the fall of the Roman Empire, and who gave France its name. Old Norse, the language of the Vikings, who occupied many of the coastal and in-land navigable areas of northern France before being granted the area now known as Normandy (meaning “Land of the Norsemen”). The influences of these languages are found in the toponymy of the French language. [5, 2] From the historical facts we know how the French and English languages are interconnected and intermingled with each other. To scrutinize and investigate this mutual interdependence in the phraseological units with topocomponents is the one of the fruitful ways to come close to the history and intangible heritage of target languages. Therefore we have assembled all information which pertains to phraseological units and toponyms in both languages.

The phraseological units are deeply investigated by linguists in each language. According to these researches there are several types of phraseological units. The phraseological units were perused and classified by several scientists and even the interest to the foreign phraseology was one of the pivotal themes of the linguists. Especially, the outstanding Russian researchers investigated foreign languages phraseology. The works of N. N. Amossova and A.V. Koonin – English phraseology, Ch. Chernyshev, A.D. Raikchshtein and M. D. Gorodnikova – the Dutch phraseology, E. M. Volf, V. S. Vinogradov, A. V. Suprun and N. N. Kurchatkina – the Spanish phraseology, T. Z. Cherdanceva – the Italian phraseology. The French phraseology was deeply investigated by V. G. Gak, N. N. Kirillova, Z. N. Levita, R. L. Lyando, A. G. Nazaryan, K. D. Prichkodko, and I. Y. Recker, G. G. Sokolova, I. N. Timeskova. From the Kazakh researchers S. K. Kenessbayeva, P. Sarssembayev, S. Tulekova were famous for their imprints in the linguistic.

Phraseological Unit (also called idiom), is defined as a word group with a fixed lexical composition and grammatical structure; its meaning, which is familiar to native speakers of the given language, is generally figurative and cannot be derived from the meanings of the phraseological unit’s component parts. [6] The historical development of the given languages influences on the meanings of phraseological units. Phraseological units of English and French languages were considered as one of the rich sources of national peculiarities of these languages. We can see the result of thoughtful and spiritual processes of the French and English people during their historical development.

The national component of phraseological unit influences on the researches and when we consider and analyze them we have to take into account the specific features of the given language. Moreover, according to the linguists there is no universal theory of phraseology which could be used in all languages. However, it is believed that the general principles and rules do exist as a common for all languages. This fact is crucial for the researchers who are to compare and analyze phraseological units of certain languages.

The appearance of the phraseology as the science was due to the researches of the Swiss linguist Charles Bally (1865-1947). According to the historical researches the appearance of phraseological units in the French language traces back to the early centuries. The phraseological unit in the French language was firstly used in 1967 by Petit Robert in his dictionary. The difference of French phraseological units is that in French the term phraseological units can be replaced with terms locution, locution figee, expression idiomatique, gallicisme, idiotisme. [7, 5]The term like locution phraseologique was proposed by Charles Bally, and considered as the closest to the Russian phraseological units as well as the term unite phraselogique. However, according to Nazaryan these terms are not frequently used in the modern linguistic terminology of the French. Evidently, the imprint of Charles Bally will not soon erode, however according to Nazaryan the French phraseological units was not deeply investigated. After the research of Charles Belly Moris Ra tried to continue investigation in this field, and defined the phraseological unit as expression facon de parler, however it was broad definition to it, therefore he included such units and even phrases and word which are disputable as the phraseological units. Other scientists like J. Maruso and P. Giro tried to characterize and define the phraseological units and gave main peculiarities like the unity of the form and meaning, the deviation from the grammatical and lexical norms, and the specific metaphorical meaning. P. Giro emphasized that not all units can have a metaphorical meaning. As for the second feature P. Giro meant the use of archaisms and marginal constructions. One of the valuable imprints was left by Allen Rei who was one of the authors of the big phraseological dictionary (6 volumes) ever published in France. According Allan Rei phraseological units have dynamic process in their semantics. He suggested making a diachronic analysis to the semantic changes of phraseological units which was proved by other scientists. However, he considered the phraseological units as the component of lexicology and not as the independent branch and field.

The classification of phraseological units is one of the disputable and interesting questions. According to the book of G.B. Antrushina L. P. Smith investigated the English phraseological units and classified into the following groups, for instance: groups idioms used by sailors, fisherman, soldiers, hunters, and associated with the realia, phenomena and conditions of their occupations. In Smith’s classification it can be found groups of idioms associated with domestic and wild animals and birds, agriculture and cooking. There are also idioms drawn from sports, arts, etc. [8, 242] The thematic principle of classifying phraseological units has real merit but it does not take into consideration the linguistic characteristic features of the phraseological units. The considerable contribution made by Russian scholars in phraseological research cannot be exaggerated. The great contribution was made by Academician V. V. Vinogradov to the phraseology. He made the first classification based on the semantic principle. It goes without saying that semantic characteristics are of immense importance in phraseological units. Vinogradov’s classification system is founded on the degree of semantic cohesion between the components of a phraseological unit. Units with a partially transferred meaning show the weakest cohesion show the weakest cohesion between their components. The more distant the meaning of a phraseological unit from the current meaning of its constituent parts, the greater is its degree of semantic cohesion. Accordingly, Vinogradov classifies phraseological units into three classes: phraseological combinations, unities and fusions. [9, 246] There are as well as diverse classification of phraseological units according to its structural principle, the semantic principle, or combined the structural-semantic characteristic and the function in communication.

The phraseological units with toponymical structures are not very numerous, they obviously constitute an extremely important group of units. This was proved by the research of A.V Urazmetova. According to her work the English phraseological units including the toponyms are 281 and French phraseological units with topo-components are 244. She classified the phraseological units with toponyms into groups: according to the structure of phraseological units: for example, the phraseological units with toponyms – English - set the Thames on fire; French – aller a Canossa; phraseological seam – English – to go to Bath – panhandle, French – aller a Cracovie – to lie; phraseological combinations – English – Paddington fair, French – jardin d’Eden, phraseological expressions with toponyms – England’s difficulty is Ireland’s opportunity; menez un ane a la Mecque vous n’en ramenerez jamais qu’un ane.

Due to the presence of cultural aspect it is stated that the phraseological can be divided into two groups: national – cultural phraseological units with topo-components – own English and French, and intercultural phraseological units with toponyms (which are derived from other languages)

The phraseological units with toponyms cannot be translated into other languages due to its national specifics and peculiarities. The notion of such phraseological units can be imparted through tracing or calques. The intercultural phraseological units with topo-components are divided into another groups like phraseological units with the mythological background, with antique mythology and borrowed from other European languages. For example, plagues of Egypt – irredeemable situation, disaster; the tower of Babel – the mix of languages, noisiness; Sodom and Gomorrah – to tell about places where inhabitants are vicious or sinful – two cities in Palestine which were destroyed by God; chemin de Damas – the way and road where people find true calling, etc. As for the borrowings it was noticed the Latin was the main source for the English language and Latin and Italian were sources for the English: Rome was not build in a day – Rome ne fut pas faite en jour; do at Rome as Romans do – si fueris Romae, Romano vivito more; voir Naples et mourir – vedi Napole e mori etc. [10, 110]

In English language we have noticed the phraseological units with names Dutch which always entailed a negative connotation: Double Dutch – something which is unclear, the Dutch bargain, a Dutch auction, a Dutch comfort, a Dutch courage, a Dutch reckoning, a Dutch treatment, a Dutch wife, be Dutch with somebody. While in English language their land had the connotation of the save place, France was considered as the heart of the World by the French people and equated as the paradise in the Earth – “Everything which is good is made in England”, “as safe as the Bank of England”; in French – “La France est le plus beau royaume après celui de ciel”, “La France est le Coeur du monde” etc.

The phraseological units with toponyms in French and English languages are epitomes of the multifarious intangible heritage. These types of phraseological units allow determining the ethno-cultural peculiarities of the same or another lingo-cultural community. Especially, the psychological peculiarities of the acceptance of the different world – another’s or foreign world by the cultural society influences on the connotation of phraseological units with toponyms. Due to the topo-components in phraseological units we can prevail with priceless treasure of people. The cultural, historical, geographical peculiarities of nation embedded in these phraseological units with topo-components.

Bibliography:

1. Уразметова, Александра Владимировна. Лингвокультурологический аспект изучения топонимов в составе фразеологических единиц. Год: 2006

2. http://grammar.about.com/od/tz/g/toponymterm.htm

3. Zeljko Hecimovic, Tomislav Ciceli. Spatial Intelligence and Toponyms. State Geodetic Administration, Gruska

4. Басик С. Н. Общая топонимика: Учебное пособие для студентов географического факультета. - Мн.: БГУ, 2006.- 200 с.

5. The origins of French. RealFrench.net website. The Manchester Metropolitan University 2004. C Dawson

6. http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Phraseological+Unit

7. Назарян. А. Г.Фразеология современного французского языка: Учеб. – 2-е изд. перераб. и доп. – М.: Высш. шк., 1987. – 288 с.

8. Антрушина Г. Б., Афанасьева О. В., Морозова Н. Н. - Лексикология английского языка - English Lexicology. – М.: Дрофа, 2005. – 286, с.

9. Антрушина Г. Б., Афанасьева О. В., Морозова Н. Н. - Лексикология английского языка - English Lexicology. – М.: Дрофа, 2005. – 286, с.

10. Уразметова, Александра Владимировна. Лингвокультурологический аспект изучения топонимов в составе фразеологических единиц. Год: 2006

Appendix-1

The classification of toponyms
Types	The meaning
Oronym	a mountain or hill
Speleonyms	caves, grottoes, underground systems
Drymonyms	Forest areas, woodlands
Hydronyms	water bodies		Potamonyms		the names of rivers, streams
			Limnonyms		the names of lakes, ponds, reservoirs
			Okeanonym		the names of the oceans
			Pelagonyms		the names of the seas or other parts of the ocean e.g. Gulf, Strait
Oikonyms	the names of any settlements		Astionyms		kind of place names, the names of cities
			Komonyms		all the names of rural settlements
Dromonyms	The names of transportation routes: the Great Silk Road,
Urbanonyms	the names of all intercity facilities	Godonyms		the name of linear intra-object - street, alley, avenue, waterfront
		Agoronyms		names of urban areas, markets
		Ergonyms		Names of enterprises and business companies
Horonyms	names of any significant areas, regions, provinces (natural, historical, administrative)
Agroonyms	a class of names, including the name of a plot of land, arable land, agricultural land
Mikrotoponym	the name of the small geographical objects
Makrotoponym	the name of a major physical and geographic place

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